Battle of Britain: Part II - The Blitz - England Under Siege

St. Paul's Cathedral, London Blitz 1940

The Blitz, defined as "lightning" was the German strategic offensive against England which lasted from September 7, 1940 to May 10, 1941. The Luftwaffe bombed London for 76 consecutive nights including many other important military and industrial centres such as Aberdeen, Barrow-in-Furness, Belfast, Bootle, Birkenhead, Wallasey, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Clydebank, Coventry, Exeter, Glasgow, Greenock, Sheffield, Swansea, Liverpool, Kingston upon Hull, Manchester, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Nottingham, Brighton, Eastbourne, Sunderland, and Southampton. After London the cities of Bootle and Hull had suffered the worst damage with many buildings destroyed or rendered uninhabitable. The Luftwaffe bombed Spitfire and tank factories in Birmingham, and munitions factories in Coventry virtually destroying the city center in the process.

Politicians and officials scrambled to organize civil defences,fearful of the disastrous consequences that bombardment would have on large sprawling metropolises such as London and Birmingham. Such fears were prevalent even before war broke out. In November 1934, Winston Churchill addressed the House of Commons, and echoed the fears of the British public that a large-scale German invasion of England would result in apocalyptic upheaval of British life as they knew it, with up to 600,000 dead, and millions of refugees fleeing into the countryside. Despite their efforts to prepare the public, there was little that the government could do to ensure the safety of millions of people throughout the British Isles. The horrible reality was that vast numbers of citizens remained vulnerable to bombing attacks. When war finally did come the supply of shelters was drastically insufficient especially in Birmingham and Coventry. By April 1941, the shelters in Belfast could not accomodate more than a quarter of the population. The poorer East-End of London also vulnerable to bombing attack and was targeted in particular due to its large Jewish population.

The organization of civil defence was largely left to the local authorities - without the provision of a clear set of procedures to follow. Lack of sufficient communal shelters made it necessary for many citizens to build their own, if they had a backyard. The Anderson shelter was one of the options available, and was designed to accommodate up to six people. Constructed of galvanised corrugated steel, its panels were bolted together and buried four feet into the ground, and its roof covered by about 15 inches of soil. Apparently the shelters tested well under blast and ground shock, and demonstrated that they were able to absorb a great deal of energy however they could not survive a direct hit.

Anderson Shelter

However, when winter came around, the Anderson shelters were cold and damp, and often flooded. It was quickly replaced by the Morrison shelter, an indoor shelter which resembled a large steel cage into which two adults and one child could fit. The cage measured 6 ft 6 in (2m) long, 4 ft (1.2m) wide, and 2 ft 6 in ( 0.75m) high with a solid steel plate table top of 1/8 in (3mm) thickness. The wire mesh sides were welded together with the addition of a metal lath "mattress" floor. Its cage was designed to absorb the shock of the upper floor falling. While these shelters could not protect its occupants from a direct hit, they provided some protection from blast damage. Tragically, many of these shelters were badly assembled and were soon abandoned as unsafe.

Morrison Shelter

Thousands of Londoners flocked to the London Underground for shelter during air raids. In 1939 the government had prohibited its use as a shelter  to avoid the disruption that would be caused to the movement of commuters and troops. There were minor incidences between crowds waiting to go below and Underground officials who were instructed to lock the entrances once a raid began. But by the second week of bombing however the authorities finally succumbed to public pressure.

Many civilians sought shelter in the Tube, already lining up outside for 04:00 pm when they would be permitted to enter.   By mid-September approximately 150,000 people a night slept there and the numbers peaked to 177,000 by the end of the month, but it declined somewhat during the winter.  Though the Underground was much safer than other options, it was not a guarantee of protection. Bombs hit several stations - Marble Arch, Balham, Bank and Liverpool Street.

The British population had been categorized as the largest civilian army in World War II.  Participation in various organizations was widespread.  Over 1.5 million volunteers enlisted in the Home Guard. These were civilians who were unable to join the military, usually due to age, and served as auxiliary defence forces, guarding coastal areas, airfields, factories and explosive stores.  They were nicknamed, "Dad's Army". Originally they were called the Local Defence Volunteers, or LDV. (in slang it was Look-Duck-Vanish, hence the name change to Home Guard).

Home Guard 1940

Home Guard Improvised Weapons

Initially their role was to observe and report enemy movements but they soon assumed a more aggressive role in their duties. They were expected to face combat with the enemy however their own training was negligible and their only weapons were pitchforks and shotguns, or museum-grade firearms. They did patrol duty on foot, by bicycle, on horseback, as well as river patrols in private craft.  Although they did not wear uniforms, their armband clearly identified them - LDV.  A few members of the Home Guard even constructed make-shift armoured vehicles which consisted of steel plates added to cars or trucks - some of which were armed with machine guns.  In addition were a few armoured cars  that had previously been discontinued by the army.

ARP Warden

The Air Raid Precautions Service (ARP) was created in 1924 because of the development of enemy bomber aircraft and the threat it posed on the British public. During the Blitz, the ARPs' responsibilities were the protection of civilians from air raids; the issuing of gas masks, pre-fabricated air-raid shelters, such as the Anderson shelters and Morrison shelters,ensuring the upkeep of local public shelters, and maintaining blackout periods. They were also part of teams helping to rescue people after air raids. Some of the ARP volunteers were women who served as ambulance attendants. They gave first aid to casualties, searched for survivors, and helped to recover bodies.

In 1941 the main functions of the ARP were incorporated into the newly formed Civil Defence Service, though the term ARP remained in usage for the remainder of the war. The ARP were disbanded in 1946 and replaced by the Civil Defence Corps in 1949.

ARP wardens patrolled the streets during periods of blackout to ensure that no light was visible. If light was visible, an order was shouted to "Put that light out!" or "Cover that window!" Anyone who refused to comply were reported to the local police. Other duties involved extinguishing incendiary bombs with sandbags, if at all possible, as well as helping citizens in bombed areas. The ARP were trained in fire-fighting and first aid and provided essential help until official rescue services arrived.

ARP fire-fighters London Blitz 1940

Hull - search for survivors

Approximately 1.4 million ARP wardens served in Britain during the war, mostly part-time unpaid volunteers. Many, like Thomas Alderson, went beyond the call of duty.  Alderson was the first ARP to be awarded with the George Cross, for having saved civilians in Bridlington in 1940.

Other organizations included the Auxiliary Fire Service, and the Scout Association also known as the "Blitz Scouts" because they guided fire engines to the most needed areas. In 1938 the AFS had only 6,600 full-time and 13,800 part-time personnel in all of England but by July 1939 its ranks swelled to 138,000.

The Womens's Voluntary Services for Civil Defence, established in 1938, was considered the female branch of the ARP. The WVS' were instrumental in the evacuation of children, established centres for civilians who were displaced by the bombing, operated canteens and organized salvage and recycling efforts. By the end of 1941, one million women had joined its ranks.

Evacuation of British children 1940

The evacuation of British children to rural areas was the largest civilian mobilisation of its kind during World War II.  The first massive evacuation took place on September 1, 1939, just two days before England declared war on Germany.  Almost 4 million people were displaced; children, mothers, pregnant women, disabled persons, teachers and various other assistants.  In May 1940, the Children's Overseas Reception Board (CORB) was formed to organize the evacuation of children to Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The second evacuation commenced in May 1940 after the fall of France.   By July more than 200,000 children were removed from coastal towns in southern and eastern England.  Over 210,000 applications were made but the entire plan was scrapped after the sinking of City of Benares on September 17, 1940.  

The SS City of Benares evacuated 90 children and was headed toward Canada when the German U-48 submarine targeted and torpedoed it.

Seventy-seven children died.


THE BLITZ

Phase One

The first phase of the attack, code-named Operation Loge began in late afternoon on September 7, 1940 and lasted for 57 days targeting the Port of London as well as areas around London and other major cities. The Luftwaffe armada consisting of 348 bombers and 617 fighters caused very heavy damage to shipping in the Thames estuary. Air battles were much more intense during daylight hours and resulted in heavy losses. British casualties were 1,600 civilians 400 of whom were killed. Fighter Command lost 23 fighters, and casualties were 6 killed and 7 wounded. The Germans lost 41 aircraft, 14 bombers, 16 Bf 109 Messerscmidts, 7 Bf 110s, and 4 reconnaissance aircraft. Later that night 247 German bombers returned. The next day, German bombs killed 412 people and wounded 747.

The Battle Of Britain (Part 1/5) (00:10:00m)



By September 9 it was apparent that the OKL (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe) was following two strategies: continuous round-the-clock bombing of London, and targeting England's vital sea communications, all in an effort to force England's surrender. Despite the poor weather, the Germans conducted intense bombing raids on the London suburbs and the airfield at Farnborough. Luftflotte 2 lost 24 airplanes including 13 Bf 109s. Fighter Command lost 17 fighters and six pilots.

September 15, 1940 came to be known as Battle of Britain Day. During the day two large fleets of the Luftwaffe  bombed the London docks and rail communications. The Luftwaffe attempted to gain air superiority by luring the RAF into battle and destroying them in as large numbers as possible. The first bombing was successful and caused damage to the rail network for three days, but a subsequent attack failed. The Luftwaffe lost 18% of their bombers and efforts to attain air superiority again failed. Casualties were 57 to 61 aircraft; 20 severely damaged; 63-81 killed, 63-64 captured; 30-31 wounded and 21 missing. The RAF suffered casualties of 29 aircraft destroyed, 21 damaged; 14-16 killed, 14 wounded, 1 captured.

During the month of September there were at least 667 hits on British railways. In one incident there were about 5,000 to 6,000 wagons idle on the track due to delayed action bombs. But despite the heavy attacks, rail traffic did resume and Londoners were able to get to their work.  In September an average of 40,000 homes were lost per week. Despite the widespread destruction and deaths, British morale remained resolute.


These battles were by no means conventional. In fact it was for the most part a secret, electronic war. The Luftwaffe had developed three major devices for radio navigation: Knickebein, ("Crooked leg"), X-Gerat (X-device), and Y-Gerat (Y-device).   In June 1940 the British inadvertently discovered the secrets of the Knickebein when a German POW was overheard talking about it in detail. It was reported to the RAF Air Staff technical advisor, Dr. R.V. Jones, who began an in-depth investigation to determine its validity. In response, the British introduced the first jamming operations using apparatus as simple as hospital x-ray machines, which when used in conjunction with nine special transmitters, directed signals at the beams that widened its path and thus interfered with the Germans’ ability to track targets accurately.

 X and Y-device beams were intentionally directed over false targets, and switched only at the last minute.  The Luftwaffe attempted to confuse the British by maintaining radio silence until the bombs fell. Once the British had developed jamming devices they were able to degrade the effectiveness of the Y-device. In response, the Germans established wider band of frequencies for the X-device to compensate for radio interference. This came to be known as the “Battle of the Beams”.



Operation Loge continued into October during which over 9,000 tons of bombs were dropped during night raids, two thirds of them on London.. About 500 short tons of bombs were dropped on Birmingham and Coventry in the last ten days of October as well; 200 short tons on Liverpool and lesser tonnage elsewhere. In all about 800 short tons were dropped out throughout Britain. Though RAF Bomber Command airfields were heavily bombed, there was little tonnage dropped on Fighter Command airfields.

Coventry Blitz

The Luftwaffe began to include nightly raids in their campaign; 50 sorties were dispatched over London every night while eastern harbours were bombed during the day, and 250 sorties per night were sent over the West Midlands. The German 10th Air Corps (part of the Sealion contingent) also took part in the bombing and by April 20, 1941 had dropped dropped 3,984 mines, capable of destroying entire streets. The few that did not explode were salvaged by British forces to use in counter-measures against the Germans.

London Blitz 1940 Fireboats on Thames River

London Necropolis Railway Station 1940

By mid-November 1940, the Germans had dropped over 13,000 short tons of high explosives on London and approximately 1,000,000 incendiaries. There were no major raids outside London except for harassing activity by aircraft and diversionary maneuvers against Birmingham, Coventry and Liverpool. A great deal of damage had been done to the London docks and railway communications. Over 13,000 civilians had been killed, and nearly 20,000 injured, in September and October alone.  Yet for all the destruction and loss of life,  observers sent by the British Home Security noted that morale remained steadfast.


British Defenses

The British employed ingenious ruses as a means to lure German bombers away from their targets. Throughout 1940, dummy airfields were assembled and were convincing enough to pass for the real thing even with skilled observation. As a result a significant amount of bombs fells on these targets. In an effort to protect industrial and residential areas, the British used simulated fires and lighting. Carbon arc lamps were used to simulate the flash of tram cables, and red lamps were used to simulate blast furnaces and locomotive fireboxes.

London Airspotter

In addition, reflections made by factory skylights were created by placing lights under angled wooden panels. However, the fake fires had to be timed very carefully so as not to begin until the bombing started over an adjacent target. Another technique, called the boiler fire, emitted flashes similar to those of German C-250 and C-500 Flammbomben. It was generated by two adjacent tanks containing oil and water - the oil-fed fires being injected intermittently with water.

British night air defences were in a poor state: anti-aircraft guns and fire-control systems were ineffective against enemy aircraft flying at over 12,000 ft. (3,700m). In July 1940, the British had only 1,200 heavy and 549 light guns in the entire country. Many of them were not equipped with fire-control systems. Of the heavy guns, about 200 were the outdated 3 inch (76mm) type. The remaining guns, the 4.5 in (110mm) and the 3.7 in (94mm) had a theoretical ceiling of 30,000 ft (9,100m), but only a practical limitation of 25,000 ft (7,600m) because the predictor in use could not accept greater heights. Half of the light guns were Bofor models and had a range up to 6,000 ft (1,800m). However it is believed that the shrapnel created by these models caused more damage on the ground than in the air.

British defences were woefully inadequate and still not effective into the second month of the Blitz. Few fighter aircraft could operate at night, the ground-based radar had its limitations, airborne radar was ineffective, The Bristol Blenheim night fighter was replaced by the more powerful Beaufighter, though the latter was available in very small numbers. The most successful night-flyers were the Boulton Paul Defiant which shot down more enemy aircraft than any other type.

Airborne Interception radar (AI) was unreliable. RAF Bombers were flown with airborne search lights due to lack of other resources. However the GL (Gunlaying) radar was very promising, which used searchlights with fighter direction from RAF fighter control rooms to begin a GCI system (Ground Control-led Interception).

The failures of the RAF led to the dismissal of Dowding, who was replaced with Sholto Douglas on November 25, 1940.  Douglas organized additional squadrons, and dispersed several GL sets to create a carpet effect in the southern counties. However by February 1941 the RAF had only seven squadrons left with 87 pilots, consisting of less than half of the required strength. The GL carpet was supported by six GCI sets controlling radar-equipped night-fighters. By the height of the Blitz, their efforts proved successful.

In 1941, the number of contacts and combats rose from 44 and two in 48 sorties in January 1941, to 204 and 74 in May. A total of 643 sorties were conducted but 67% of them were visual cat's eye missions. Oddly, while 43% of the contacts in May 1941 were by visual sightings, they accounted for 61% of the combats: when compared that of the Luftwaffe daylight operations, there was a sharp decline in German loses to 1%. If vigilant crew could spot the fighter first, they had a decent chance at evading it.

John Cunningham by Cuthbert Orde

From this point forward radar was the critical weapon in the night battles over Britain. Dowding was responsible for the introduction of airborne radar which eventually proved successful. On the night of July 22/23, 1940, an AI night fighter of the Fighter Interception Unit intercepted and destroyed enemy aircraft using onboard radar which guided them to a visual interception. The pilot, Flying Officer Cyril Ashfield, the observer Pilot Officer Geoffrey Morris and the Air Intercept radar operator, Flight Sergeant Reginald Leyland were credited with having taken down the Do 17 off Sussex. On November 19, 1940, RAF night fighter ace John Cunningham shot down a Ju 88 bomber also using airborne radar. By the middle of November, nine squadrons had become available though only the No. 219 Squadron from RAF Kenley was equipped with Beaufighters. By February 16, 1941 there were twelve squadrons, with five of the Groups equipped with Beaufighters.

Beaufighters RAF

Phase Two

In the second phase of battle, from November 1940 to February 1941, the Luftwaffe continued its attacks on London and the Midlands. On November 13-14, 77 He 111s bombed London, while Birmingham was hit by 63 planes from the KG55, the most famous squadron of the Luftwaffe. The following night Coventry was attacked by 437 bombers of the 12 Kampfgruppe 100. The Lehrgeschwader 1 dropped 394 short tons of high explosives, 56 short tons of incendiaries and 127 parachute mines. (Statistics vary according to source.) By the end of the campaign over 10,000 incendiary bombs had been dropped. About 21 factories were badly damaged, as well as nine others causing disruption of industrial output for several months. Five nights later, 369 German bombers hit Birmingham. By the end of November the Luftwaffe had at the ready 1,100 bombers to run sorties but on average 200 planes were conducting nightly bombing raids. In November alone there were 6,000 sorties, and in a two month period over 13,900 short tons of bombs were dropped.

British Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1940 Blitz

By December the Luftwaffe conducted only 11 major attacks and 5 heavy attacks. But on December 29th, Luftwaffe bombing caused a firestorm which spread rapidly throughout the London. A day which became known as the Second Great Fire of London. At 18:17 hours, 10 "Pathfinder" He 111s and 130 German bombers were dispatched to drop the first round of 10,000 incendiary and high explosive bombs over London. It amounted to 300 bombs dropped every minute. The action destroyed the historical centre of London.


In an effort to disrupt trade and communications the Luftwaffe also targeted port cities. In January 1941, about one hundred bombers dropped about 32,000 high concentration incendiaries on Swansea.  Four days later Portsmouth was hit by waves of 150 bombers dropping 40,000 incendiary bombs. There was widespread destruction and devastation of homes, warehouses and rail lines. But the docks were for the most part untouched. By the following month bad weather made it difficult for the Luftwaffe to keep up momentum but in truth less than half of German planes were combat worthy.


Final Attacks

Throughout the month of March 1941, the Luftwaffe flew 4,000 sorties and conducted twelve major and three heavy attacks, focusing on western ports. But the intensity of attacks eased off in the last ten air raids. German command had redeployed seven of the Kampfgruppen to Austria in preparation for their Campaign against Yugoslavia and Greece.  The OKL was faced not only with a shortage of bombers but the increased burden placed on the exhausted aircrew, and units left behind. In one incident, on the night of April 28/29, German pilot Peter Stahl of the KG30, flying his 50th mission, fell asleep at the controls of his Ju 88. Upon awakening he discovered that the entire crew had also been asleep. The mission eventually resumed.

On March 10 to 11, 240 bombers attacked Plymouth dropping 193 tons of high explosives and 46,000 incendiaries causing heavy damage to residential and commercial buildings and knocked out the electrical supply, five oil tanks, and two magazines. Nine days later, 295 bombers returned and in two waves dropped 160 tons of high explosives and 32,000 incendiaries. The city centre and port installations were heavily damaged.

Plymouth 1940

Two days later, Clydebank port near Glasgow was bombed. Of its 12,000 houses only seven were undamaged. Plymouth port was attacked five times. Cardiff was bombed for three nights. Belfast and Hill were also hit. The centre of Portsmouth was targeted by five raids and suffered the heaviest bombardment owing to its close proximity to German air bases. Though British ports were severely damaged, they managed to continue to operate in Plymouth, Southampton and Portsmouth.

Clydebank

The blitz against Liverpool was successful, as well as that against Bootle and Wirral causing heavy damages to its ports. Over 75 per cent of Liverpool's port capacity had been reduced in addition to having lost 39,126 long tons of shipping, and 111,601 long tons damaged. Roads and rails were blocked and ships could not leave the harbour.  

Liverpool 1940

The Luftwaffe heavily targeted the port cities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and Sunderland on the north-east coast. On April 9th, 120 bombers dropped 150 tons of high explosives and 50,000 incendiaries during a five hour attack causing damage to rail, docklands, electrical installations and sewers.

On April 17, 250 bombers led by Kampfgeschwader 26, dropped 346 tons of explosives,46,000 incendiaries and aerial mines over Plymouth. Damage was extensive. British forces launched 2,000 AAA shells but managed to destroy only two JU 88s.

Luftflotte 2 dispatched 60 bombers on April 25 to Sunderland dropping 80 tons of high explosives and 9,000 incendiaries causing heavy damage. Despite German efforts they were incapable of crippling British maritime movements in either the north or south of England.

The Port of London was bringing in one-third of overseas trade making it a prime target of the Luftwaffe. On May 8, 1941, about 80,000 long tons of shipping were destroyed, sunk or damaged, 66,000 homes were destroyed, while casualties were 1,900 killed and 1,450 seriously wounded.  The last major attack on London took place on May 10 to 11, 1941 during which the Luftwaffe flew 571 sorties, dropping 800 tons of bombs, followed by another raid on May 11 to 12 resulting in over 2,000 fires throughout the city. Casualties were 1,436 killed and 1,792 seriously injured. Westminister Abbey and the Law Courts were damaged, and a chamber of the House of Commons destroyed. A third of London streets were rendered impassable and all train lines except for one were blocked for several weeks. Noteworthy is that the Luftwaffe had to send  63 German fighter escorts with their bombers - an indication that the RAF night fighter defences were becoming a force to contend with.

Despite reports of civilian morale being high, the Minister of Home Security Herbert Morrison noted that general morale among the population had fallen drastically. The widespread damage caused by the Luftwaffe was immense and caused great fear and trepidation.  With the intensification of U-boat attacks on British sea communications and the Nazi occupation of Western Europe, the British had reason to fear what consequences might occur should the Luftwaffe succeed. Great Britain counted on its ports for importing supplies and materials from North America, and the British railway for its considerable network of distribution to the entire nation.


Conclusion

Hitler complained about the Luftwaffe's failure to inflict sufficient damage, and had said: "The munitions industry cannot be interfered with effectively by air raids...usually the prescribed targets are not hit." The failure of the Luftwaffe to achieve the desired results was in part due to poor Intelligence on their part. At times they could not even locate the factories and airfields. As a result, British production of fighter aircraft continued at a rapid pace and surpassed that of Germany by a ratio of 2:1. British produced 10,000 aircraft while Germany's output was 8,000.

Though both RAF and Luftwaffe struggled to keep pace with losses to aircrew, the British were in a more advantageous position, as the were operating over home territory. British pilots who survived being shot down could fly again, whereas German crews in the same situation would face capture. German losses were much higher as their planes had four to five crewman aboard. German losses were 2,265 aircraft, a fourth of which were fighters and a third were bombers. About 3,363 Luftwaffe airmen were killed, 2,641 missing and 2,117 wounded. An additional number of planes were wrecked due to bad weather or landings.

That the Germans failed to destroy the RAF and British industry was due to ineffectual leadership of the OKL, as well as limited Intelligence. They had followed a policy of frequently changing clusters of targets and though it was military ineffective they caused enormous damage to Britains infrastructure and housing stock. Over 41,000 British people lost their lives and 139,000 wounded. However,in the eight months of bombing, the Germans could not destroy Britains war economy nor demoralise the British civilians. By May 1941, it was apparent that an invasion of Britain had passed. Hitler turned his attention to the east focusing on Operation Barbarossa.

Coming July 21, 2011

Battle of Britain: Part III - Famous Polish Ace Pilots

NB: Sources and Suggested Links will be provided at the end of this series.

Battle of Britain: Part I - This Was Their Finest Hour

Heinkel over London 1940

 "Where Napoleon failed I shall succeed. I shall land on the shores of Britain"

These chilling words were declared by Hitler as he envisaged the conquest of the British Isles in his next step towards world domination. One by one the nations of central and western Europe had toppled - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Holland, Denmark, Belgium, Austria, and France.

The evacuation at Dunkirk which followed was an ominous portend. England now stood alone - a mere 34 kilometers separating the shores of the British Isles from Hitlers Third Reich.




Hitler planned the invasion of England to proceed in two stages, beginning with an all-out attack by the Luftwaffes dive bombers and torpedo bombers on British airfields. The Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) that is, the Luftwaffe High Command was confident that they could easily achieve air superiority and follow through with the second stage, Operation Sealion in which amphibious assaults would take place along the southern coast of England. Success depended on their ability to neutralize the RAF first. However, the Grand Admiral of the Kriegsmarine, Karl Donitz held an opposing view. He believed that air superiority alone was insufficient, stating "we possessed neither control of the air or the sea; nor were we in any position to gain it." Irregardless, Hitler went ahead with preparations and expected that the news of the impending invasion would frighten Great Britain into "peace negotiations".

Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax and a sector of British political and public opinion supported the option for a negotiated peace with Hitler, but such sentiments were fiercely quashed by the new Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. He adamantly refused to consider an armistice with Hitler and applied his skill as orator to inspire and compel a nation with the resolute will to fight the enemy.

Winston Churchill "finest hour" (00:02:01m)


British airspace was divided into four groups: Group 10, under the command of Air Vice-Marshal Sir Quintin Brand, defended Wales and the West Country; Group 11 was commanded by Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park (a New Zealander) and defended the southeast of England as well as critical approaches to London; Group 12 was under the command of Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, and defended the Midlands and East Anglia; and Group 13, commanded by Air Vice-Marshal Richard Saul, covered the north of England.

The weight of the battle fell on Group 11 whose squadrons were dispatched to intercept German air raids. British tactics employed only a small number of fighters at a time, making continual attacks in an attempt to break up tight German formations. Having accomplished this, stragglers could then easily be picked off one by one. In the event that multiple German squadrons reached a raid, British procedure called for the dispatch of the slower Hurricanes to attack the bombers, while the agile Spitfires dealt with the fighter escorts. However, it became evident that objectives were better achieved when the Hurricanes and Spitfires reversed their roles. Another of Parks instructions called for frontal attacks against the bombers, but few RAF fighter units were able to accomplish this in a fast-moving, three-dimensional battle.

Spitfires based in southern England, 1940

Hawker Hurricanes Battle of Britain 1940

The first phase of the battle, known as "the Channel Battles" (Kanalkampf) took place between July 10 and August 11, 1940 during which Stuka dive bombers attacked British convoys in the English Channel. The decision by Kesselring and Sperrle to launch the offensive was partly due to the fact that they did not know what else to do. However, it gave German pilots the opportunity to probe British defences as well as use the raids to train their pilots. During the battle about 30,000 tons of British merchant shippping were sunk, however the Royal Navy was virtually unscathed. Because of the heavy losses, the British Admiralty cancelled all further convoys.

Luftwaffe attack ships in Dover Harbour 11th day

RAF casualties were 70 pilots and 148 aircraft, while Luftwaffe casualties were about 180 aircrew and 286 aircraft. (Various sources report disparate estimates.)

During this first phase of the battle it became apparent that some German aircraft were not suited to intense dogfighting, such as the Defiant and the Bf 110.



The next phase, Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack) began on August 12th. The special fighter-bomber unit Erprobungsgruppe (Erpro) 210 attacked four radar stations, hitting the tall radar towers rather than the more important and vital operation centers. Three stations were temporarily knocked off the air but resumed functionality within six hours. It demonstrated that the British radar system was difficult to destroy. It also revealed the incompetence of German intelligence services. Although the Germans knew about British radar that existed before the war, they were not aware of the advancements made through the Dowding system, nor its importance to British defence.

Operation Eagle Attack

The key to British defence was a complex infrastructure of Radio Direction Finding (later called radar - for radio detection and ranging.) It was referred to as the Dowding System, for its creator, Air Chief Marshall, Sir Dowding, leader of RAF Fighter Command.  At his insistence radar operators were linked through telephone lines to an operational centre, that is with Fighter Command located at Bentley Priory. (Wires were laid deep underground with concrete anti-bomb protection.) Victory depended on the British ability to be able to detect and intercept incoming German aircraft.

Contrary to popular belief England did not invent radar. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist was the first to generate and detect what were to be called radio waves. During the interwar period from 1934 to 1939, eight nations were conducting secret experiments developing their own radar systems: the United States, Great Britain, Germany, USSR, Japan, Netherlands, France and Italy. After the onset of World War II, Hungary was added to the list. By 1939 Germany already possessed sophisticated radar designs but had failed to appreciate its applications for defensive uses. One of their systems, called the Knickebein ("crooked leg") was used during night bomb raids where precision was required. Another system called the "Freya" was first tested by the Germans in 1937 and was used in conjunction with the Wurzburg radar. (The Freya would find targets at long distances and then "hand them over" to the shorter-range Wurburg for tracking.)

  

On August 15th, the OKL ordered the largest number of sorties yet in which Luftflotte 5 attacked the North of England. However, a large number of Bf 110 bombers lacked adequate fighter escort and were shot down by the RAF. North East England was attacked by 65 Heinkel 111s (escorted by 34 Messerschmitt 110s) and RAF Great Driffield was attacked by 50 unescorted Junkers 88s. Of a total of 115 bombers and 35 fighters, the RAF shot down 16 bombers and 7 fighters, greatly diminishing the strength of Luftflotte 5.

August 18, dubbed "The Hardest Day" resulted in very heavy casualties for both sides. It marked the end of the Ju 87 in battle. This aircraft was too vulnerable to enemy fighters and in order to preserve the fleet, Goring withdrew them from action. By removing the main weapon in the Luftwaffe's arsenal, the burden was shifted to the Erpro 210. The Bf 110 lacked agility in the air and was ill-suited for dogfighting with single-engined fighters. It too was withdrawn and redeployed as night fighters, allotting them greater protection under cover of darkness.

Bf 110 Messerschmidts

Goring made numerous decisions which had negative repercussions on Germany's prospects in the Battle. He ordered more bomber escorts at the expense of free-hunting sweeps. Luftflotte 2 was to carry the weight of the attack; the bulk of the Bf 109s were transferred from Luftflotte 3 to Kesselring's command in reinforce his bases in the Pas-de-Calais. As a result Luftflotte 3 was stripped of its fighters and was deployed on night bombing raids. He also made sweeping changes to the command structure of the fighter units with replacements of younger and more aggressive pilots. Furthermore, his decision to stop attacks on the radar chain indicated that he underestimated its importance. Instead he chose to focus on bringing up the "Tommies" in an effort to draw the British into an air battle.

The most ill-conceived decision made by the Luftwaffe was to change the target to London, and the increased range it entailed. Their Bf 109 escorts had only a limited fuel capacity and by the time German fighters reached London airspace, they had only 10 minutes more flying time before having to return to base. The Bf 109 had a range of about 850 km (528 miles) but a droptank could have extended its range to 1,000 km (621 miles). By the time the OKL included the drop tank to their planes, the Battle was already in its later stages. The drop tank provided an additional capacity of about 300 litres of fuel (66 imp gal. or 79 US gal) that could have extended their endurance for over an hour. Without it, the Luftwaffes power was greatly diminished and hence many raids were conducted without cover from fighter escorts.

Bf 109 Messershmidt

On August 19th, Goring ordered attacks on aircraft factories and on August 23rd attacks on RAF airfields. The same night the Luftwaffe attacked a tyre factory in Birmingham, a major attack on Portsmouth, and several areas of London including the East End and central London were bombed. In retaliation, on the night of August 25-26,the RAF dispatched 95 planes to bomb Tempelhof Airport, and Siemensstadt near the environs of Berlin, and bombing raids continued.

Goring had once claimed that the British would never be able to attack Berlin. That the RAF succeeded enraged Hitler and he ordered retaliatory attacks on London. In a speech given on September 4th, 1940, Hitler threatened to obliterate several British cities unless the RAF ceased the bombing.

From August 24th onwards, the Luftwaffe concentrated its attacks on British airfields in an attempt to knock out Fighter Command. Within two weeks the Germans had mounted thirty-three heavy attacks against Biggin Hill, Hornchurch, Debden, North Weald, Croydon, Gravesend, Rochford, Hawkinge and Manston. Coastal Command`s Eastchurch was bombed at least seven times. (The Germans thought it was a Fighter Command aerodrome.) Despite the intensity and frequency of these attacks, the integrity of British radar was not compromised. Although there was some damage to sector stations they were quickly repaired.

Fighter Command 1940

From July to September 1940, the Luftwaffe lost 1,636 aircraft (1,184 destroyed by Allied attacks) constituting a loss of 47 per cent of their single-engined fighters, 66 per cent of twin-engined fighters and 45 per cent of bombers. During the same period the number of Luftwaffe pilots decreased by 136 and the number of operational pilots had declined by 171 by September, losses which were not replaced. And unlike the British pilots, German fighter pilots were not afforded training or rest rotations.

BBC Broadcast of Air Battle July 14, 1940

British losses were also heavy but the RAF was able to keep pace with losses to planes and aircrew. Production sectors completed 496 planes in July, 467 in August and another 467 in September. The number of pilots also increased: 1,200 were available in July, 1,400 in August, and by October their numbers reached 1,600 - significantly higher than the number of Luftwaffe pilots. To offset losses RAF squadrons were supplemented by about 58 Fleet Air Arm fighter pilot volunteers but most of them were inexperienced having logged as little as nine hours flying time and had virtually no training in air-to-air combat or gunnery.  The new RAF pilots had "almost no chance at all" of surviving their first five sorties, partly due to the fact that they were given the least reliable planes,damaged planes, or the rookies flew at the tail-end of formations. Their chances for survival increased during the next 15 sorties along with their skill and confidence. Unfortunately after 20 sorties their chances of survival were nil. The RAF was desperate for more aircrew at this point and began incorporating squadrons and personnel from the British Dominions, that is, Australians, Canadians, New Zealanders, Rhodesians and South Africans. In addition multi-national squadrons were also organzied from the Free French, Czechoslovakian and Polish squadrons.

The Polish squadrons however, were held back by the Commander-in-Chief Sir Hugh Dowding and placed through a regime of unnecessary training drills. Apparently Dowding was under the impression that non-English speaking pilots would have difficulty working within his system. Much to his astonishment, the Polish pilots proved themselves to be highly-skilled and effective fighters, having gained considerable experience fighting the Germans in Poland. The men of 303 "Kosciuszko" Squadron ranked the highest in the RAF for the most number of kills. Josef Frantisek, a Czech, so admired the Poles that he joined their squadron. Frantisek is credited with the highest RAF score in the Battle of Britain.

Polish 303 Squadron

Josef Frantisek

On September 7, 1940, the Germans launched Operation Loge, its first intentional air raid against the Port of London. A total of 348 bombers and 617 fighters took part in the battle, the Luftwaffe causing damage to over 107,400 long tons of shipping in the Thames Estuary, and casualties of over 1,600 civilians, 400 of whom were killed. The battle continued for 57 consecutive nights, with daylight raids being more intense. The Luftwaffe lost 41 aircraft, 14 bombers, 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109s, 7 Messerschmitt Bf 110s and 4 reconnaissance planes. Fighter Command lost 23 fighters with 6 pilots killed and 7 wounded. The next night German bombers attacked again killing 412 people and severely wounding 747 others.

The RAF rose to meet the threat in larger numbers than were expected by the Luftwaffe. However, Group 12 Group took twenty minutes to gain formation and missed its intended target, but encountered another formation of enemy bombers while still climbing. Fighter Command was at its lowest ebb - short of both men and planes, however the break from airfield attacks had given them the opportunity to recover. Group 11 had achieved its mission successfully breaking up daytime raids however Group 12 had some successes but often failed to meet requests to protect Group 11 airfields.

St.Katherine Docks, London 1940

At a meeting on September 14, Hitler raised the question of whether to cancel Operation Sealion altogether. It was apparent by then that an invasion could not be realized even with massive German air cover. But he believed that he could win the Battle by crushing British morale while maintaining the threat of an imminent invasion. The next day two massive waves of German attacks were launched but were repulsed by the RAF. The total casualties that day were 60 German and 26 RAF planes shot down. Two days later Hitler called for the postponement of the invasion of Britain, and announce yet another postponement on October 13th, - a precursor to the cancellation a month later.

Hitler inspecting Kriegsmarine January 1, 1940

On September 15, the Luftwaffe launched a large-scale daylight attack on London along the Thames estuary resulting in a loss of 18 per cent of its bombers. The day came to be known as "Battle of Britain Day". Several more battles ensued during September and into October but the Luftwaffe still could not achieve air superiority. Finally, on October 7 German command ordered the Luftwaffe to switch to night-time raids under the protection of darkness.

On the night of September 27 a Junkers Ju88 was shot down as it was returning from a raid on London. Two RAF fighters, a Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane from the No.66 and No.92 Squardron attacked when they recognized the Junkers over Faversham (near Kent). The British pilots were under orders to capture an enemy aircraft intact if possible. The Junkers first engine was already damaged from a previous raid on London, and the Spitfire destroyed the second engine forcing the pilot to make a crash landing at Graveney Marsh. The four German crewmembers armed with aircraft machine guns and submachine guns exchanged heavy fire with the British soldiers. One German was injured and the remainder surrendered and were taken prisoner. Captain John Cantopher disarmed the bombers demolition charge after which the plane was taken to Farnborough Airfield for examination by British engineers. It was the last time that England was “invaded".

Captain John Cantopher

The Junkers 88 shot down over Faversham

On October 8, 1940 the first of the RAF's Eagle Squadrons, No. 71 was formed of Americans who enlisted in the RAF.  Another two Eagle Squadrons were soon formed, No.121 and No. 133, all of which were later transferred to the United States Army Air Force when the United States entered the war. They formed the 4th Fighter Group, United States 8th Air Force.



RAF Eagle Squadron (00:07:59m)





One of the most important factors that kept British morale high was the continued presence in London of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth I.  When war broke out in 1939 they did not flee the capital but remained in London, alternating visits between Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle. They had survived the terror of the Blitz when the Luftwaffe had bombed Buckingham Palace. In one instance the King and Queen were in a room about 80 yards from where the bombs fell. Queen Elizabeth I was reported to have said later, "Good. Now I can look the East End in the eye."

King George VI and Queen Elizabeth I visit London's East-End 1940

British victory came at a very heavy cost. From July to December 1940 British civilian losses were 23,002 dead and 32,138 wounded. In one of the largest single raids on December 19, 1940, almost 3,000 civilians were killed. RAF casualties were 544 aircrew killed, 422 wounded, and 1,547 aircraft destroyed. Casualties resulting from the Blitz (September 7, 1940 to May 10, 1941) were 40,000 to 43,000 civilians killed; 46,000 injured ( figures for wounded possibly as high as 139,000 ) German casualties were 2,698 aircrew killed, 967 captured, 638 missing bodies, and 1,887 aircraft destroyed.  Despite the heavy losses Britain was able to recover after the battle and re-establish itself as an Allied stronghold.

The Battle of Britain was Hitler's first defeat, and one of the crucial turning points in World War II. It proved that the German war machine was not invincible. The Luftwaffe was incapable of destroying Fighter Command despite continuous raids on airfields and on London. Moreover, German forces had already lost much of its initial strength as a result of its western campaign. It is interesting to note that throughout the Battle, the OKL greatly underestimated the size of the RAF and the scale of its aircraft production, while exaggerating the extent of the Luftwaffe’s successes. Such misconceptions led to strategic errors. Believing that they had already succeeded in eliminating Fighter Command, the OKL shifted its attacks from the airfields to that of industry and communications. Such changes were due to a lack of cohesion among German commanders, each one vying for his own plan of action. That and the lack of German Intelligence assured that the German offensive over Britain was doomed to fail before it even began.

The key to British victory in the Battle of Britain was its air superiority. It had been acknowledged by both sides that the only way of achieving a successful invasion of the British Isles was through naval supremacy. Historians continue to debate the subject. According to Professor Andrew Gordon, who lectures at the Joint Services Command and Staff College, had the Luftwaffe won the air battle, the Royal Navy could have easily prevented the Germans from making a landing. However, some veterans of the Battle disagreed and maintained that the Royal Navy would have then been vulnerable to air attack (as occurred when the HMS Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk in December 1941 in an attack by Japanese aircraft.) Others have argued that a German invasion could not have succeeded with or without German air superiority, solely because of the massive superiority of the Royal Navy. Nevertheless, the consensus of opinion is that the Luftwaffe was incapable of crushing the RAF. We owe a great debt to the pilots of the RAF. They were the "few" who saved England and the world. Churchill’s words of praise has immortalised them forever.

Next:

Battle of Britain: Part II - The Blitz - England Under Siege

NB: Sources and Suggested Links will be provided at the end of this series.